Rugby Science Update 23

By Lara Paul

Tackle characteristics associated with suspected concussion in female varsity rugby union: a case-control video analysis study

The aim of this study was to examine the association between tackle characteristics and suspected concussion-related versus non-injurious tackle events in a Canadian female varsity rugby cohort using video analysis. Video footage from Canada West female varsity rugby union league, spanning 2017 to 2019, were analysed. A case-control study design was employed to evaluate the relationship between tackle characteristics and a suspected concussive tackle event. Tackle and head impact characteristics, such as contact direction, location, intensity, were coded. In total, 13 439 tackles were identified. Among 151 225 suspected injury events identified, 26% were classified as suspected concussions. Of these, 78% were attributed to tackle events, while the remaining concussions resulted from other match events, such as a scrums, mauls, or rucks. A high head impact intensity score was strongly associated with concussion for both ball carriers and tacklers. Tackler related suspected concussions were linked to tackle events involving three tacklers in a tackle event, a tap tackle and an away pre-contact head position. Ball carrier related suspected concussions were associated with a tap tackle, illegal tackle type and down pre-contact head position. Concussion prevention programmes and strategies should be prioritised in rugby. The findings of this study can guide the development of strategies and programmes focused on tackle types and head positioning for both tacklers and ball carriers.

This study is published in the International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport.

Shill, IJ, Galarneau, JM, Hendricks, S, Hagel, BE, Emery, CA & West, SW 2024, ‘Tackle characteristics associated with suspected concussion in female varsity rugby union: A case-control video analysis study’, International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, pp. 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/24748668.2024.2413802

‘Mind your head’, tackle characteristics associated with concussions in rugby league: A case-control study

The purpose of this study was to identify tackle characteristics associated with clinically diagnosed concussions in the men’s rugby league. Additionally, it aimed to determine the tackle characteristics that predict concussions in rugby league. Match concussions were reported throughout the 2018-2022 Super League seasons and were analysed using video analysis by the research team. In total, 7415 tackles that did not involve concussive events were coded, alongside the analysis of 196 concussions. Seventy percent (70%) occurred to the tackler, while thirty percent (30%) occurred to the ball carrier. Key tackle characteristics associated with concussions included the tackle impact location on the ball carrier’s body, the ball carrier leading arm, the number of defenders in the tackle, and the interaction of body positioning between the ball carrier and tackler. Specific characteristics for tacklers included tackler head placement, the ball carrier leading arm, number of players in the tackle, and tackle impact zone location on the ball carrier. For ball carrier concussions, tackle impact zone location on the ball carrier and the ball carrier and tackler body position. Tackle technique interventions should prioritise proper head placement to minimize direct impacts to the tackler’s head. Interestingly, this study found that the greatest odds of concussion occurred when both players were falling or diving rather than remaining upright. Tackles involving one ball carrier and three tacklers were the most frequent tackle type and had the lowest odds of causing concussion.  Prioritising strategies focused on the tackler may significantly reduce overall concussions. Interventions should address initial impact with the ball carriers’ head or neck to decrease ball carrier concussions. Further research into optimal techniques for both ball carrier and tackers is needed. The findings of this study suggest that modifying and reinforcing tackle laws could help reduce the incidence of concussions in rugby league.

This study is published in Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport.

Cameron Owen, Andrew Gardner, Kevin Till, James Brown, Matt Cross, Sharief Hendricks, Rich D. Johnston, Gemma Phillips, Keith Stokes, Ross Tucker, Ben Jones. ‘Mind your head, tackle characteristics associated with concussions in rugby league: A case-control study. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 2024.ISSN 1440-2440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2024.10.006.

What do coaches want? Exploring the preferences of youth rugby union coaches for education in the implementation of injury prevention programmes

The aim of this study was to explore youth Rugby Union coaches’ preferences for education and support in implementing injury prevention programmes. Five focus group were conducted in 2023, involving twelve Rugby Union coaches from secondary school teams and youth clubs in Ireland. Data were collected until data saturation was reached, and a conventional content analysis approach was used to analyse the data and address the research question. Three main categories emerged from the analysis:  1) Formal/non-formal learning, 2) Informal learning, and 3) Intrapersonal considerations. Coaches expressed a preference for live, structured, and practical workshops during the pre-season period, which a strong focus on developing knowledge. The emphasized that injury prevention workshop should also be a stand-alone session to allow full attention to the topic. Coaches also requested active resources to aid in planning their programmes. These resources would enable coaches to develop implicit knowledge of injury prevention programmes through various means, including adapting, integrating, and engaging in Q&A sessions. Coaches also sought the flexibility to adjust programmes as needed. The study identified a mismatch between coaches’ preferences for injury prevention programme education and what is currently offered through National Governing Bodies coach education programmes. Further exploration of perspectives of National Governing Bodies is necessary to address this gap.

This study is published in Physical Therapy in Sport.

Guilfoyle L, Comyns T, O’Sullivan K, Kenny IC. What do coaches want? Exploring the preferences of youth rugby union coaches for education in the implementation of injury prevention programmes. Phys Ther Sport. 2024 Dec 21;72:1-8. doi: 10.1016/j.ptsp.2024.12.002. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 39756251.

Rugby Science Update 22

By Lara Paul

“Women shouldn’t play rugby” – the gendered and embodied experiences of women players in rugby union

The aim of this study to understand the attitudes, experiences and behaviours of women rugby players concerning tackle performance and safety. In depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with twenty-one senior women rugby players. A constructivist grounded theory approach guided the recruitment of participants, data collection and data analysis. The results were divided into two categories: 1) The position of women’s rugby and 2) how women shape the field of rugby. Participants discussed how their bodies felt ‘out of place’ within the rugby community due to their personal experiences and restrictive gender norms. This included deeply embedded gender norms within social and organisational structures, playing conditions and societal perceptions of women’s rugby, which limited their opportunities to safely participate and thrive in the sport. Despite these challenges, players did not change themselves to fit in, rather, they embraced the diversity of women’s embodiment and capabilities. They continued to participate in this sport, actively re-shaping the future of women’s rugby. The authors mentioned that participants expressed optimism about the future public profile of women’s rugby, and this positive attitude could serve as a catalyst for changing attitudes and increasing support. The authors recommend that researchers continue to build on this research by investigating the why and how certain knowledges and practices become normative, as well as when and why they may be resisted.

This study is published in the Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health.

Kathryn Dane, Geraldine Foley, Pauline Cullen & Fiona Wilson (2024) “Women shouldn’t play rugby” – the gendered and embodied experiences of women players in rugby union, Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 16:5, 487-502, DOI: 10.1080/2159676X.2024.2375395

Twenty year analysis of professional men’s rugby union knee injuries from the English premiership shows high rates and burden

The aim of this study was twofold: (1) to describe the incidence, severity and burden of knee injuries over 20 English Premiership rugby seasons in matches and training, and (2) to assess changes in injury rates over time and compare these rates across different playing surfaces and between types of playing events. Data on injuries and match and training exposure were collected from first team male rugby players of Premiership Rugby Clubs from 2002/2003 season to the 2022/2023 season. All injury definitions were aligned with the 2020 IOC injury consensus document. Over the 20 seasons, a total of 2128 knee injuries reported, with 71% occurring during matches and 29% during training. Annually, knee injuries accounted for an average of 11.6% of all match injuries and 9.5% of all training injuries. The mean knee severity in matches was 50 days, with an injury incidence of 9.8 injuries per 1000 player hours. MCL injuries were the most common during matches; however, ACL injuries had the highest severity (241 days) and injury burden (112 days per 1000 hours). In training, the mean severity of knee injuries were 51 days, and the injury incidence was 0.2 injuries per 1000 player hours. MCL, chondral/meniscal, and ‘other’ knee injuries were the most common in training, though ACL injuries had the highest severity (243 days). While the overall knee injury count did not change over time, counts of PCL and complex knee injuries have significantly increased. Average knee injury severity also showed a significant increase over time. Knee injury rates during matches were 44% higher on artificial grass pitches than on natural grass surfaces. The tackle event was the leading cause of knee injuries in matches, with ball carrier at a higher risk than tacklers. For ACL injuries, running accounted for 33% of cases, followed by the tackle event with 31%. Given the evolving nature of the game, prioritising knee injury prevention strategies is recommended.

This study is published in British Journal of Sports Medicine.

West SW, Hudson SJ, Starling L, et al Twenty year analysis of professional men’s rugby union knee injuries from the English premiership shows high rates and burden British Journal of Sports Medicine Published Online First: 22 October 2024. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2024-108639

Minimal influence of the menstrual cycle or hormonal contraceptives on performance in female rugby league athletes

This study aims to examine performance across the menstrual cycle and compare athletes using hormonal contraption with those having a “natural” cycle. Twenty-four national Australian National Rugby League’s Indigenous Women’s Academy athletes participated in this study while attending a 5 week training camp. The players were divided into two groups: those using hormonal contraception and those reporting naturally menstrual cycles. After two familiarization sessions, participants completed performance tests on three separate occasions, aligned with each participant’s individualized menstrual (MC) or hormonal contraceptive cycle. Menstrual status was tracked for all athletes by recording the onset of bleeding, conducting 11 weeks of MC or hormonal contraceptive tracking, using dual hormone urinary ovulation kits, and analysing retrospective serum 17‐β‐estradiol and progesterone concentration. Performance tests were administered at MC phase one, two and four for natural menstruating athletes and three equally spaced out intervals for athletes using hormonal contraceptive athletes. Blood samples were collected from each athlete before each performance testing session. Performance tests included the countermovement jump (CMJ), squat jump (SJ), and isometric mid‐thigh pull, conducted on a dual force plate system, followed by the power pass, 20m sprint and the Stroop Colour and Word Test. No differences or changes were observed in CMJ, SJ, and isometric mid‐thigh pull force, power pass distance, 20m sprint times or Stroop effect across MC phases, test sessions, or between groups. However, small variations in kinetic and kinematic outputs were noted in the CMJ and SJ: a 16.8% greater mean concentric power were observed in the CMJ, and a 4.7% reduction in impulse at 50 ms in the SJ during MC phase four compared to MC phase one. This study suggests that while the menstrual cycle or hormonal contraceptive use does not significantly impact physical and cognitive performance outcomes, certain kinetic or kinematic outputs during the CMJ and SJ may experience minor alterations.

This study is published in European Journal of Sport Science – Open Access.

Smith ES, Weakley J, McKay AKA, McCormick R, Tee N, Kuikman MA, Harris R, Minahan C, Buxton S, Skinner J, Ackerman KE, Elliott-Sale KJ, Stellingwerff T, Burke LM. Minimal influence of the menstrual cycle or hormonal contraceptives on performance in female rugby league athletes. Eur J Sport Sci. 2024 Aug;24(8):1067-1078. doi: 10.1002/ejsc.12151. Epub 2024 Jun 15. PMID: 38877892; PMCID: PMC11295101.

Rugby Science Update 21

By Lara Paul

An evaluation of the impact of the Irish Rugby Football Union Coach Education Framework on the coach–athlete dyad across the age and stage spectrum in rugby union

The aim of this study was to evaluate the implementation of the novel Irish Rugby Football Union Coach Education Framework (CEF) on coach–athlete interactions and perceptions. Specifically, this study aimed to evaluate the impact of coaches’ behaviours during training sessions, the structure of these training sessions within the allocated time the coaches are provided, and the perceptions of both coaches and athletes regarding their relationship and the coaches’ behaviours. Four coaches and 54 players from rugby union youth teams in Ireland participated in this study. Data were collected three times across an 18 month time period: before the CEF intervention; immediately after intervention and at the end of the season post-intervention. Three separate training session observations were recorded for each participating coach with a lapel microphone and a camcorder. The Coach Analysis and Intervention System (CAIS) tool was used to analyse each coach’s behaviour and training session time. Additionally, coaches filled out the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q) and the players completed the Coaching Behaviour Scale for Sport (CBS-S) Questionnaire. For the intervention, the CEF content was delivered using a facilitated workshop approach focusing on the interpersonal nature of the coaching process. There were significant changes in the coaches’ behaviours after the CEF intervention, including increases in management type behaviour profiles, negative feedback and silence behaviours. Interestingly, there was an increase in negative feedback as opposed to positive feedback, which is not the type of feedback encouraged. Coaches made efforts to increase the volume of their feedback by correcting players’ behaviours but did not use positive feedback that players value. It was also found that coaches did not significantly change their use of time for the training session content. There was mutual satisfaction between the players and their coaches. Coach education needs consistent application over a long time to be successful, but this study shows that the implementation of CEF has encouraging results.

This study is published in the International Journal of Sport Science and Coaching.

Smith, K., Burns, C., O’Neill, C., Quinn, N., Winkelman, N., Wilkie, M., & Coughlan, E. K. (2024). An evaluation of the impact of the Irish Rugby Football Union Coach Education Framework on the coach–athlete dyad across the age and stage spectrum in rugby union. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/17479541241258702

Determining female‐specific high‐intensity activity GPS thresholds in women’s rugby union: Use of current use of male‐derived absolute speed thresholds underestimates true levels

The study aims to: 1) assess alternative GPS speed threshold in comparison to a set of male-derived thresholds, 2) identify the effect of these thresholds on high intensity movement distances, and 3) make appropriate recommendations on how to use GPS speed thresholds in women’s rugby union. Fifty-eight Women’s Premier rugby union players took part in this study. Forty-seven of these players performed two 20 meter maximal sprints using the Rugby Football Union testing guidelines for Premier XVs teams to determine maximal velocity. All match GPS data was captured using Catapult Minimax S4 devices. To identify the effect of female‐specific speed thresholds on the match characteristics of players, three sets of thresholds were applied to each data file: one using male-derived criteria and then two alternative thresholds for comparison. When calculating the total high-intensity movement distances in women’s rugby union using the male derived threshold, it equates to 2.1% of the total distance completed in games. Forty-one percent of the players were able to achieve speeds higher than the male derived sprint threshold (21 km.h-1). Significant small to moderate increases were found in total sprint distances when the speed thresholds were adjusted. In total high intensity running distances, significant moderate to large increases were found when the speed thresholds were adjusted. The authors recommend reducing speed thresholds for female rugby union players to the suggested thresholds in this paper (for example: >14 km.h−1 for high‐intensity running and ≥17 km.h−1 for sprinting). This will allow for the production of data that accurately represents the demands experienced in the women’s game, enabling appropriate player preparation.

This study is published in European Journal of Sport Science – Open.

Bradley, E., Roberts, J. and Archer, D. (2024), Determining female-specific high-intensity activity GPS thresholds in women’s rugby union: Use of current use of male-derived absolute speed thresholds underestimates true levels. Eur J Sport Sci. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsc.12149

Real‑World Fatigue Testing in Professional Rugby Union: A Systematic Review and Meta‑analysis

The aims of this study were threefold; 1) to perform a systematic review of the literature on the measures used to assess fatigue of professional rugby union players, 2) to complete a meta-analysis of the changes in the neuromuscular, biochemical, self-reported, and heart rate-derived measures associated with monitoring fatigue in professional rugby players, and 3) to provide recommendations based on the literature for monitoring rugby union player fatigue after match play and training in a practical setting. The search was conducted on six electronic databases up to July 2023 (PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, EMBASE, and MEDLINE). Studies were included if they investigated male rugby union players and focused the influence of match play and/or training on these players, using neuromuscular, biochemical, subjective self-report, and heart rate-derived measures to assess fatigue. A total of 37 full-text articles were included in this review, and 17 full-text articles were included in the meta-analysis. The review was split into four sections: (1) neuromuscular; (2) subjective self-reports; (3) biochemical; and (4) heart rate derived measures. The use of subjective soreness measures to assess fatigue was found to be the most applicable measure in this review. The effectiveness of using countermovement jump height, biochemical markers, and heart rate-derived measures to assess fatigue remains unclear. Although countermovement jump height shows high individual variability, the authors support its use as a fatigue assessment tool in professional rugby union settings, provided it is interpreted on an individual basis.

This study is published in Sports Medicine.

Grainger, A., Comfort, P., Twist, C. et al. Real-World Fatigue Testing in Professional Rugby Union: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Sports Med 54, 855–874 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-023-01973-3